Synergistic Charge Transfer Effect in Ferrous Heme-CO Bonding within Cytochrome P450.

We conducted ab initio valence bond (VB) calculations employing the valence bond self-consistent field (VBSCF) and breathing orbital valence bond (BOVB) methods to investigate the nature of the coordination bonding between ferrous heme and carbon monoxide (CO) within cytochrome P450. These calculations revealed the significant influence exerted by both proximal and equatorial ligands on the π-backdonation effect from the heme to the CO. Moreover, our VB calculations unveiled a phenomenon of synergistic charge transfer (sCT). In the case of ferrous heme-CO bonding, the significant stabilization in this sCT arises from cooperative resonance between the VB structures associated with σ donation and π backdonation. Unlike many other ligands, CO possesses the unique ability to establish two mutually perpendicular π-backdonation orbital interaction pairs, leading to an intensified stabilization attributed to σ-π resonance. Furthermore, while of a smaller energy magnitude, sCT due to one π-π pair is also present, contributing to the differential stabilization of ferrous heme-CO bonding.

Mechanism of Selective Aromatic Hydroxylation in the Metabolic Transformation of Paclitaxel Catalyzed by Human CYP3A4.

Paclitaxel (PTX) is heralded as one of the most successful natural-product drugs for the treatment of refractory cancers. In humans, the hepatic metabolic transformation of PTX is primarily mediated by two cytochrome P450 enzymes (P450s): CYP3A4 and CYP2C8. The impact of P450 metabolism on the anticancer effectiveness of PTX is significant. However, the precise mechanism underlying selective P450-catalyzed reactions in PTX metabolism remains elusive. To address this knowledge gap, we conducted molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations using multiple crystal structures of CYP3A4, which originally contained other ligands. These methods enabled us to determine the most plausible binding structure of PTX within the enzyme. By further employing hybrid quantum mechanics and molecular mechanics calculations, we successfully identified two primary pathways for the reaction between compound I (Cpd I) of CYP3A4 and PTX. One of these pathways involves the formation of an epoxide, while the other proceeds through a ketone intermediate.

Atom Transfer Radical Coupling Enables Highly Enantioselective Carbo-Oxygenation of Alkenes with Hydrocarbons.

The selective functionalization of C(sp3)-H bonds has emerged as a transformative approach for streamlining synthetic routes, offering remarkable efficiency in the preparation and modification of complex organic molecules. However, the direct enantioselective transformation of hydrocarbons to medicinally valuable chiral molecules remains a significant challenge that has yet to be addressed. In this study, we adopt an atom transfer radical coupling (ATRC) strategy to achieve the asymmetric functionalization of C(sp3)-H bonds in hydrocarbons. This approach involves intermolecular H atom transfer (HAT) between a hydrocarbon and an alkoxy radical, leading to the formation of a carbon-centered radical. The resulting radical adds to alkenes, generating a new radical species that is intercepted by a chiral copper-mediated C-O bond coupling. By employing this method, we can directly access valuable chiral lactones bearing a quaternary stereocenter with high efficiency and excellent enantioselectivity. Importantly, ATRC exhibits great potential as a versatile platform for achieving stereoselective transformations of hydrocarbons.

Bidirectional Charge Transfer at the Heme Iron in Reversible and Quasi-irreversible Cytochrome P450 Inhibition.

The coordination bonding between inhibitor ligands and heme iron plays a critical role in disrupting the essential catalytic functions of cytochrome P450 enzymes (P450s). Despite its intrinsic importance and consequential implications for human health, our current understanding of coordination bonding in P450 inhibition remains limited. To address this knowledge gap, we conducted a systematic theoretical analysis of the complexes between a ferric or a ferrous heme model and representative inhibitor ligands. Specifically, we evaluated the charge-transfer (CT) effect within these complexes by employing a series of theoretical methods based on density functional theory (DFT). Through a comprehensive analysis, we unveiled the relative significance of ligand-to-heme forward CT in the ferric and ferrous complexes of reversible inhibitors. In contrast, backward CT dominates over forward CT in the ferrous heme complexes of quasi-irreversible inhibitors. Further analysis using the compact frontier orbital method underscores the elevated electron-accepting abilities of quasi-irreversible inhibitors for π backdonation, which greatly amplifies their binding affinity for the ferrous heme. This study sheds light on the intricate mechanisms underlying P450 inhibition and provides valuable insights for future inhibitor design and development.

Alkynone ß-trifluoroborates: A new class of amine-specific biocompatible click reagents.

Amine-targeting reactions that work under biocompatible conditions or in water are green processes that are extremely useful for the synthesis of functional materials and biotherapeutics. Unfortunately, despite the usefulness of this reaction, there are very few good amine-specific click methods reported thus far. Here, we report an amine-specific click reagent using alkynone ß-trifluoroborates as the electrophiles. These boron-containing alkynyl reagents exhibit extremely high chemoselectivity toward amines even in the presence of thiols. The resulting oxaboracycle products are bench-stable, displaying the reactivities of both organoborates and enaminones. Intrinsic advantages of this methodology include benign reaction conditions, operational simplicity, remarkable product stability, and excellent chemoselectivity, which satisfy the criteria of click chemistry and demonstrate the high potential in bioconjugation. Hence, this water-based chemical approach is also applicable to the modification of native amino acids, peptides, and proteins. Ultimately, the essential role of water during the reaction was elucidated.

Spectral features of the ferrous-CO complex in cytochrome P450: a revisit using TDDFT calculations.

There are different views in the literature regarding how to interpret the observed spectral features of the ferrous-CO complexes in cytochrome P450 enzymes (P450s). In this work, we applied density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent DFT (TDDFT) calculations at the B3LYP-D3BJ/def2-TZVP level with a CPCM correction to the ferrous-CO models of P450s as well as of proteins that contain a histidine-ligated heme. Our results support the notion derived from a previously reported iterative extended Hückel calculation that the involvement of the sulfur lone-pair orbital (S(nz)) of the axial cysteine ligand in the electronic excitations gives rise to a spectral anomaly. The Q and the shorter-wavelength Soret (B') peaks are primarily due to the electronic transitions from the a2u- and S(nz)-type molecular orbitals (MOs), generated via an orbital interaction of fragment orbitals, to the near-degenerate eg-type π* MOs, respectively. The transitions from the a1u-type MO to the eg-type MOs contribute most to the longer wavelength Soret (B) peaks. Both a2u- and S(nz)-type MOs contribute to the B peaks, but the contribution of the latter is greater. When the axial ligand is histidine, the Q and Soret peaks originate essentially from the excitations from the a2u- and a1u-type MOs to the eg-type MOs. The transitions from the b2u-type MOs to the eg-type MOs play the most significant role in the N peaks of such ferrous-CO complexes. Here, the b2u-type MOs have a large contribution from the imidazole π orbital.

Cooperativity in Shape-Persistent Bis-(Zn-salphen) Catalysts for Efficient Cyclic Carbonate Synthesis under Mild Conditions.

A series of conformationally rigid (Zn-salphen)2 complexes with a planar bridging component (xanthene or dibenzofuran) are described. Conformational changes for these assemblies are essentially limited to the axial rotation of the Zn-salphen moieties; however, such geometric constraints crucially permit the subtle tuning of the intermetallic separation and geometry to potentially enhance catalytic activity (and cooperative effects). The complexes have been investigated as catalysts in conjunction with nBu4NI for the coupling of CO2 with epoxides. Selected dibenzofuran derivatives are significantly more active for the production of cyclic carbonate than their mononuclear analogues under identical conditions and concentrations of Zn sites. High initial turnover frequencies (up to 29 000 h-1; 14 500 h-1 per Zn, using 10 bar of CO2 at 95 °C) and excellent efficiencies under mild conditions (1 bar of CO2 at 55 °C) have been achieved. Kinetic studies using in situ (ReactIR) spectroscopy and density functional theory calculations have been performed, which reveal the existence of an intramolecular rate component and a preference for the cooperative pathway as well as transition states that depict the Zn sites operating in tandem. Taken together, these results provide strong evidence of cooperative reactivity in these Zn2 catalysts.

The Bonding Nature of Fe-CO Complexes in Heme Proteins.

Although carbon monoxide (CO) has been known to bind to the ferrous heme in cytochrome P450 enzymes (P450s) since the earliest days of P450 research, details on the nature of the ferrous-CO bonding remain elusive. This study employed dispersion-corrected density functional theory (DFT) calculations and DFT-based theoretical analyses to investigate the complexes between CO and a thiolate- or imidazole-ligated heme that contains ferric or ferrous iron. Traditionally, the ferrous-CO bonding in heme systems has been interpreted qualitatively in terms of σ donation and π backdonation. Complementary occupied-virtual orbital pair (COVP) analysis yielded one orbital pair for σ donation and two for π backdonation together with the specific magnitude of their energetic contributions. The charge-transfer effect for these three orbital pairs has nearly the same energetic significance in the ferrous-CO complexes. Therefore, in total, the π-backdonation effect is much greater than the σ-donation effect. In contrast, the σ-donation effect is more significant in the ferric-CO complex because of the less efficient π backdonation. The nature of ferric-CO and ferrous-CO bonding was further scrutinized using the generalized Kohn-Sham energy decomposition analysis (GKS-EDA) scheme, whose results highlighted the significance of various effects in enhancing the Fe-CO bonding for the thiolate- and imidazole-ligated heme groups. In particular, the intrinsic repulsion effect plays a crucial role in promoting the preferential binding of CO toward the ferrous heme and in determining the geometry of the complexes.

Energy Decomposition Analysis of the Nature of Coordination Bonding at the Heme Iron Center in Cytochrome P450 Inhibition.

Drug compounds or their metabolic intermediates (MIs) sometimes inhibit the function of cytochrome P450 enzymes (P450s) by forming a coordination bond with the Fe(III) heme or Fe(II) heme of P450s. Such inhibition is one of the major causes of drug-drug interactions (DDIs), a subject of longstanding academic and practical interest. However, such coordination bonding is not fully understood at the quantum mechanical level, thus hampering rational improvement of the accuracy of DDI-related predictions. In this work, we employed density functional theory (DFT) and the generalized Kohn-Sham energy decomposition analysis (GKS-EDA) scheme to investigate the nature of the coordination bonding formed in the reversible and quasi-irreversible inhibition of P450s. The GKS-EDA results highlighted a previously unrecognized role of the electron correlation effect in P450 inhibition. The correlation effect tends to be larger in Fe(II) complexes of MI-type inhibitors and is particularly prominent for the nitrosoalkane ligand. An additional natural bond orbital (NBO) analysis provided insight into the relative significance of the σ donation and π backdonation effects in various heme-inhibitor complexes.

Controllable multiple-step configuration transformations in a thermal/photoinduced reaction.

Solid-state photochemical reactions of olefinic compounds have been demonstrated to represent powerful access to organic cyclic molecules with specific configurations. However, the precise control of the stereochemistry in these reactions remains challenging owing to complex and fleeting configuration transformations. Herein, we report a unique approach to control the regiospecific configurations of C = C groups and the intermediates by varying temperatures in multiple-step thermal/photoinduced reactions, thus successfully realizing reversible ring closing/opening changes using a single-crystal coordination polymer platform. All stereochemical transitions are observed by in situ single-crystal X-ray diffraction, powder X-ray diffraction and infrared spectroscopy. Density functional theory calculations allow us to rationalize the mechanism of the synergistic thermal/photoinduced transformations. This approach can be generalized to the analysis of the possible configuration transformations of functional groups and intermediates and unravel the detailed mechanism for any inorganic, organic and macromolecular reactions susceptible to incorporation into single-crystal coordination polymer platforms.

An intramolecular photoswitch can significantly promote photoactivation of Pt(iv) prodrugs.

Selective activation of prodrugs at diseased tissue through bioorthogonal catalysis represents an attractive strategy for precision cancer treatment. Achieving efficient prodrug photoactivation in cancer cells, however, remains challenging. Herein, we report two Pt(iv) complexes, designated as rhodaplatins {rhodaplatin 1, [Pt(CBDCA-O,O)(NH3)2(RhB)OH]; rhodaplatin 2, [Pt(DACH)ox(RhB)(OH)], where CBDCA is cyclobutane-1,1-dicarboxylate, RhB is rhodamine B, DACH is (1R,2R)-1,2-diaminocyclohexane, and ox is oxalate}, that bear an internal photoswitch to realize efficient accumulation, significant co-localization, and subsequent effective photoactivation in cancer cells. Compared with the conventional platform of external photocatalyst plus substrate, rhodaplatins presented up to 4.8 104-fold increased photoconversion efficiency in converting inert Pt(iv) prodrugs to active Pt(ii) species under physiological conditions, due to the increased proximity and covalent bond between the photoswitch and Pt(iv) substrate. As a result, rhodaplatins displayed increased photocytotoxicity compared with a mixture of RhB and conventional Pt(iv) compound in cancer cells including Pt-resistant ones. Intriguingly, rhodaplatin 2 efficiently accumulated in the mitochondria and induced apoptosis without causing genomic DNA damage to overcome drug resistance. This work presents a new approach to develop highly effective prodrugs containing intramolecular photoswitches for potential medical applications.

Direct Atomic-Level Imaging of Zeolites: Oxygen, Sodium in Na-LTA and Iron in Fe-MFI.

Zeolites are becoming more versatile in their chemical functions through rational design of their frameworks. Therefore, direct imaging of all atoms at the atomic scale, basic units (Si, Al, and O), heteroatoms in the framework, and extra-framework cations, is needed. TEM provides local information at the atomic level, but the serious problem of electron-beam damage needs to be overcome. Herein, all framework atoms, including oxygen and most of the extra-framework Na cations, are successfully observed in one of the most electron-beam-sensitive and lowest framework density zeolites, Na-LTA. Zeolite performance, for instance in catalysis, is highly dependent on the location of incorporated heteroatoms. Fe single atomic sites in the MFI framework have been imaged for the first time. The approach presented here, combining image analysis, electron diffraction, and DFT calculations, can provide essential structural keys for tuning catalytically active sites at the atomic level.

C-H oxidation enhancement on a gold nanoisland by atomic-undercoordination induced polarization.

C-H activation is of great significance in the chemical industry while an effective solvent-free catalyst is highly desired. This work shows that a gold nanoisland which was inert in the bulk is effective for C-H activation reactions. We investigated the C-H activation of toluene on an Au nanoisland (58 atoms) using relativistic density functional theory (DFT). We found that (i) the bonds between under-coordinated gold atoms (corner site) shrink spontaneously and become stronger; (ii) the valence charges of corner atoms are polarized to the upper edge of the valence band (near the Fermi level), indicating the electron donation ability in the catalytic process; (iii) during C-H oxidation, the indirect path (O2 dissociation and O-H bonding) and direct path (O2-H bonding) were considered. The Au-O2 complex is active enough to abstract a hydrogen atom directly from toluene, with a barrier that is 6.8 kcal mol-1 lower than that of the indirect path; and (iv) a transfer of up to ∼0.8 electrons from gold to O2 occurs. Moreover, hybridization between delocalized gold orbitals and oxygen p-orbitals leads to the stabilization of the singlet spin state of Au58O. Our results suggest that undercoordination-charge-polarization are key factors for the C-H oxidation catalyzed by an Au nanoisland.

Fluorescein-Containing Superoxide Probes with a Modular Copper-Based Trigger.

Fluorescein-derived superoxide probes featuring a copper(II) complex that can be activated by superoxide to initiate ether bond cleavage and uncage a fluorescein reporter for imaging in live cells are described. Compared to other superoxide sensing moieties, this bond cleavage strategy can be modularly adapted to fluorescent reporters with different properties without compromising the superoxide reactivity and selectivity. A green-emitting probe and its lysosome-targeting analogue have been successfully developed. Both probes are sensitive with more than 30-fold fluorescence enhancement towards superoxide and are highly selective with no significant response towards other reactive oxygen species. A structure-activity relationship study of the copper-based superoxide trigger showed that the secondary coordination environment of the copper(II) center is important for the superoxide reactivity and selectivity. The probes have been applied in imaging changes in intracellular superoxide level in live HeLa and HEK293T cells upon menadione stimulation and also in a cellular inflammation model in RAW 264.7 cells.

Ultrafast Luminescent Light-Up Guest Detection Based on the Lock of the Host Molecular Vibration.

Light-up luminescence sensors have been employed in real-time in situ visual detection of target molecules including volatile organic compounds (VOCs). However, currently employed light-up sensors, which are generally based on the aggregation-induced emission (AIE) or solvent-induced energy transfer effect, exhibit limited sensitivity for light-up detection and poor recycling performances thereby significantly hindering their industrial applications. Inspired by the low-temperature enhanced luminescence phenomenon, we herein propose and show that a guest-lock-induced luminescence enhancement mechanism can be used to realize the ultrafast light-up detection of target VOCs. Through introduction of chlorinated hydrocarbons to lock the molecular vibrations within a designed [Cu4I4]-based metal-organic framework (MOF), luminescence intensity could be enhanced significantly at room temperature. This guest-lock-induced luminescence enhancement is brought about by weak supramolecular interactions between the host framework and the guest molecules, allowing highly sensitive and specific detection of the guest vapor with ultrafast response time (<1 s). Single-crystal X-ray diffraction (SCXRD) analysis of guest molecules-loaded MOFs and density functional theory (DFT) calculations were employed to investigate the host-guest interactions involved in this phenomenon. Moreover, the above MOF sensor successfully achieved real-time detection of a toxic chloroaromatic molecule, chlorobenzene. The guest-lock-induced light-up mechanism opens up a route to discovering high-performance ultrafast light-up luminescent sensors for real-time detection applications.

Mechanistic insight into hydroxamate transfer reaction mimicking the inhibition of zinc-containing enzymes.

A hydroxamate transfer reaction between metal complexes has been investigated by a combination of experimental and theoretical studies. A hydroxamate-bound cobalt(ii) complex bearing a tetradentate macrocyclic ligand, [CoII(TBDAP)(CH3C(-NHO)O)]+ (1), is prepared by the reduction of a hydroximatocobalt(iii) complex with a biological reductant. Alternatively, 1 is accessible via a synthetic route for the reaction between the cobalt(ii) complex and acetohydroxamic acid in the presence of a base. 1 was isolated and characterized by various physicochemical methods, including UV-vis, IR, ESI-MS, and X-ray crystallography. The hydroxamate transfer reactivity of 1 was examined with a zinc complex, which was followed by UV-vis and ESI-MS. Kinetic and activation parameter data suggest that the hydroxamate transfer reaction occurs via a bimolecular mechanism, which is also supported by DFT calculations. Moreover, 1 is able to inhibit the activity against a zinc enzyme, i.e., matrix metalloproteinase-9. Our overall investigations of the hydroxamate transfer using the synthetic model system provide considerable insight into the final step involved in the inhibition of zinc-containing enzymes.

Copper-Catalyzed Asymmetric Arylation of N-Heteroaryl Aldimines: Elementary Step of a 1,4-Insertion.

Copper complexes of monodentate phosphoramidites efficiently promote asymmetric arylation of N-azaaryl aldimines with arylboroxines. DFT calculations and experiments support an elementary step of 1,4-insertion in the reaction pathway, a step in which an aryl-copper species adds directly across four atoms of C=N-C=N in the N-azaaryl aldimines.

Molecular weight fractionation by confinement of polymer in one-dimensional pillar[5]arene channels.

Confinement of polymers in nano-spaces can induce unique molecular dynamics and properties. Here we show molecular weight fractionation by the confinement of single polymer chains of poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) in the one-dimensional (1D) channels of crystalline pillar[5]arene. Pillar[5]arene crystals are activated by heating under reduced pressure. The activated crystals are immersed in melted PEO, causing the crystals to selectively take up PEO with high mass fraction. The high mass fractionation is caused by the greater number of attractive CH/π interactions between PEO C-H groups and the π-electron-rich 1D channel of the pillar[5]arene with increasing PEO chain length. The molecular motion of the confined PEO (PEO chain thickness of ~3.7 Å) in the 1D channel of pillar[5]arenes (diameter of ~4.7 Å) is highly restricted compared with that of neat PEO.

Host-Guest Complexation Using Pillar[5]arene Crystals: Crystal-Structure Dependent Uptake, Release, and Molecular Dynamics of an Alkane Guest.

Host-guest complexation has been mainly investigated in solution, and it is unclear how guest molecules access the assembled structures of host and dynamics of guest molecules in the crystal state. In this study, we studied the uptake, release, and molecular dynamics of n-hexane vapor in the crystal state of pillar[5]arenes bearing different substituents. Pillar[5]arene bearing 10 ethyl groups yielded a crystal structure of herringbone-type 1:1 complexes with n-hexane, whereas pillar[5]arene with 10 allyl groups formed 1:1 complexes featuring a one-dimensional (1D) channel structure. For pillar[5]arene bearing 10 benzyl groups, one molecule of n-hexane was located in the cavity of pillar[5]arene, and another n-hexane molecule was located outside of the cavity between two pillar[5]arenes. The substituent-dependent differences in molecular arrangement influenced the uptake, release, and molecular dynamics of the n-hexane guest. The substituent effects were not observed in host-guest chemistry in solution, and these features are unique for the crystal state host-guest chemistry of pillar[5]arenes.

Ferrihydrite Particle Encapsulated within a Molecular Organic Cage.

Metal oxides with sizes of a few nanometers show variable crystal and electronic structures depending on their dimensions, and the synthesis of metal oxide particles with a desired size is a key technology in materials science. Although discrete metal oxide particles with an average diameter ( d) smaller than 2 nm are expected to show size-specific properties, such ultrasmall metal oxide particles are significantly limited in number. In nature, on the other hand, nanosized ferrihydrite (Fh), which is ferric oxyhydroxide, occurs as a result of biomineralization in ferritin, an iron storage protein cage. Here we describe the synthesis of Fh particles using a covalent molecular organic cage (MOC) derived from 8 + 12 cyclocondensation of triaminocyclohexane with a diformylphenol derivative. At the initial reaction stage, eight iron ions accumulated at the metal binding sites in the cage cavity, and Fh particles ( d = 1.9 ± 0.3 nm) encapsulated within the cage (Fh@MOC) formed with a quite narrow size distribution. The formation process of the Fh particle in the organic cage resembles the biomineralization process in the natural iron storage protein, and the present method could be applicable to the synthesis of other metal oxide particles. Fh@MOC is soluble in common organic solvents and shows substantial redox activity in MeCN.